Russian Revelation

This article, written by Graeme Orphan, is the first in a three part series, and was first published in Classic Wings Downunder magazine, Volume 5, Number 2. It is Copyright 1998 Classic Wings Downunder magazine.

It was interesting, listening to the group of young teenagers standing nearby, hearing the exclamations of "Awesome"; "Radical" and "These things really rock!" They weren't talking about the latest from Nintendo or from the computer magicians in Hollywood. Rather, they were seeing for the first time the freshly restored Polikarpov I-16 'Ratas' of the Alpine Fighter Collection being put through their paces at Wanaka. I was staggered by their reactions, considering these were local kids brought up on a steady diet of Spitfires, Mustangs and Corsairs. On the other hand, watching and listening to the stubby Russian fighters in action is very different from observing the thorough-breds produced by the Western nations. Perhaps this has to do with the very different environment in which the I-16 evolved, or the fact that it came from an earlier era. I wondered if those youngsters were aware that what they were seeing was one of history's really significant combat aircraft. 
 

DEVELOPMENT

Following the revolution of 1917, the nascent Russian aviation industry began to take shape with more direction. Early manufacture centred around the license-production of foreign designs, while experiments continued with local design and innovation. The first aircraft type to go into series production was in fact a British type of First World War vintage. In 1918, N.N. Polikarpov was put in charge of preparing manufacture of the de Havilland DH-4 at the GAZ-1 facility where at least 63 were completed. Focus then switched to the DH-9A and Polikapov headed the team charged with adapting the type for local production as the R-1. This involved extensive materials substitution, and Polikarpov recalculated the whole design. At least 2,700 R-1s were eventually produced, and this was Russia's first mass-produced aeroplane. 
 
By 1930, Russian aviation and local design in particular had made great strides. The Air Force's scientific research institute (the NII V-VS) was producing outlines for the future of combat aircraft. Few people in the western world at that time would have realised that the Soviet Union was flying four engined cantilevered monoplane bombers (the Tupolev TB-3) of all-metal construction and blistering with gun positions as early as 1930, long before the B-17 was ever dreamt of. The development of future fighter aircraft was given a high priority and two clear lines of thought emerged. With the powerplants and construction types of the time, it was acknowledged that superior speed could be gained from monoplane design yet the biplane clearly demonstrated the greater manoeuvrability. The solution prescribed by the NII was to assemble mixed fighter formations comprising fast monoplanes and agile biplanes. 
 
The existing fighter fleet of the time already comprised a biplane and monoplane combination. The monoplane in service at that time was the Tupolev I-4 actually more a sesquiplane, with a strut based parasol mainplane, and a small cantilevered second wing beneath (some versions deleted the lower wing altogether). It was powered by a 480hp Bristol Jupiter or M-22 (license built version) radial engine. The Polikarpov I-5 was an attractive conventional biplane not unlike the Gloster Gamecock or Bristol Bulldog, and like its British counterparts, was powered by the Jupiter/M-22 radial. The Polikarpov was actually the faster of the two. It had been created under unusual circumstances, as Nikolai Polikarpov and his design team had been arrested and imprisoned as a result of the crashes of a number of his design prototypes. That seems outrageous today, but the charge of sabotage was not that unusual in an environment of extreme sensitivity to possible counter-revolutionary activity. A special facility was established to house such interned designers and it was here that the I-5 was created. The success of the I-5, of which over 800 were completed, and his proposal for a new improved biplane design, the I-15, saw the release of Polikarpov and his team in 1933. 
 
By the end of 1931, A. N. Tupelov had been assigned the task of designing the new monoplane fighter, since the Tupolev Bureau had extensive experience of monoplane design, albeit with very large bomber and transport aircraft. P.O. Sukhoi was put in charge of design and the result was the I-14 all metal, retractable undercarriage, cantilevered monoplane. Polikarpov meanwhile, having been released from prison, sought permission to design a rival to the I-14 and this was attacked with great relish. Design work on his new monoplane fighter, given the bureau number TsKB-12, commenced in March 1933 and by the last days of that year, the all-red prototype of what was to be known as the I-16, was flown with V.P. Chkalov at the controls. The Tupelov I-14 had flown eight months earlier but there were several areas of concern over the aircraft, not the least of which was the slow recovery from spins. Work on the I-14 would eventually be discontinued after just 22 examples had been completed. 
 
At a time when it was clear that aluminium stressed skin was the way of the future, Polikarpov's new monoplane was of very mixed construction. The fuselage was essentially a timber monocoque made up of glued birch laths laid up over a basic four longeron frame with 11 stations. The completed wooden shell was covered with a madapolan type fabric for strength and sealing. The mainplane comprised a chrome-molybdenum steel tube truss-type centre section, skinned in aluminium. Outer wings were made up of steel tube truss-type spars with steel sheet webs, and aluminium ribs, the whole mainplane being covered partly in aluminium and partly in fabric. The ailerons were also aluminium structures covered with fabric and with no flaps fitted to the aircraft, these were made to droop through 15 degrees for approach and landing. The tail surfaces were also fabric covered aluminium structures. The undercarriage took the form of an inverted tripod, made to retract inwards by way of a complex series of cables and pulleys, all operated from the cockpit (by way of manual winding!). The cockpit was accessed through a fully enclosed canopy that slid forward for entry, assisted by bungee cords, and small cockpit side hatches. The canopy arrangement proved unpopular with pilots and was later replaced by a simple windscreen. 
 
The initial two I-16 prototypes were powered by different engines, the first with a 480hp M-22 (Russian Bristol Jupiter) and the second with a 715hp Wright R1820-F-3 Cyclone. It was intended that both powerplant options would eventually be produced, the lower powered machine being used as a transition trainer. State trials on both aircraft took place during February and April 1944, and various defects were identified and subsequently rectified, however it had become clear that the new aircraft was an outstanding machine and the decision to enter full-scale production was taken. Initially, the supply of Cyclone engines caused some difficulties, however, after protracted negotiations with Wright, the engine was put into production locally as the M-25. 
 
With production well underway, additional refinements were being developed, most notably with the form of the cowlings, and with the arrangement of armaments. The I-16 was originally fitted with two 7.62 ShKAS machine guns placed just outboard of the centre section, and thus outside the propeller arc. A range of firepower options followed with the various subsequent models of the I-16 incorporating different combinations of machine guns, ShVAK 20mm cannon, (positioned both in the mainplanes and on the top of the fuselage), while hard points under the wings allowed various options including racks of six cluster bombs, drop tanks or six rockets, the latter representing the first time rockets had been fired from an aircraft. One version designated SPB was developed as a dive bomber with strengthened wings, dive brakes, and the capacity to carry two 200 or 250 kg bombs. A number of I-16s were converted to this specification in the field during 1941 and 1942. 
 
Separate development took place on a two seat trainer variant of the I-16 known as the UTI (fighter trainer), essentially the same airframe with two open cockpits and dual controls. This would also be produced with either the M-22 or M-25 engine, and some were built with fixed undercarriages. Great importance was placed on this version since the I-16 could be a tricky aircraft in the hands of inexperienced pilots and dual training on type paid enormous dividends. Of the total production of 9,450 I-16s, a significant 1,639 are believed to have been UTI variants. 
 

SERVICE ABROAD

The development, test flying, and operational use of the I-16 drew little attention from the Western world until the aircraft came into prominence during the Spanish civil war. The Spanish Government, the Republicans, sought Soviet assistance in the form of military equipment. Stalin was supportive, and once a deal had been negotiated, the assistance began to flow through. The first Polikarpov I-16s were delivered in September 1936, supported by air and ground crew. Within two months, over 100 were flying against the now active fascist forces. The I-16s, dubbed 'Rata' (rat) by the Nationalists, acquitted themselves well, proving more than capable against most enemy fighters, although the highly regarded Fiat CR-32 biplane displayed excellent agility and was hard to shoot down. Various figures have been quoted for the number of I-16s that served in Spain, ranging from 279 to 475, the discrepancy possibly resulting from uncertainty over those which were locally produced. It is known however that some I-16s were still in service some time after the end of the Second World War. 
 
Further service of the I-16 outside Russia took place in China where some 290 of the type were put to use against Japanese forces commencing in 1937. Once again, Russian personnel were involved in the operations of the aircraft. Through the summer and autumn of 1939, the I-16 was again seeing action against the Japanese, this time wearing Soviet colours over the Khalkin Gol and Nomonhan Plateau near Mongolia. Similarly, action in the west, during the Winter War with Finland in 1939/40 saw the I-16 continue to display its competitiveness, the Type 24 in service there boasting an 1,100hp M-63 engine. From the time of its inception through to the end of the 1930s, the Polikarpov held its own against opposing fighters whenever it was called upon to do so. Its greatest challenge however, was yet to come. 
 
With the advent of 'The Great Patriotic War' against Germany a new type of fighter aircraft was being pitted against the I-16 for the first time. The first 'modern' fighters encountered by I-16 pilots were the Bf.109 and Fw.190s of the Luftwaffe, and there was no doubt at all that these were very superior aircraft. The production of I-16s had actually ended in the spring of 1940, but such was the demand for fighter aircraft to counter the German advance that the I-16 production line was restarted and another 450 I-16s were subsequently produced. The attrition of I-16s in the early days of the conflict with Germany was considerable, with many of the aircraft being destroyed on the ground by the sweeping nature of the Luftwaffe attacks. The I-16 however had served its purpose and given the Soviet Union an enormous leap in progress during the early 1930s so that subsequent evolution of design was seeing new Russian fighters like the MiG-3, the Lavochkins, and the lovely Yak-3 going into service against the Lutwaffe. 
 

AFTERMATH

By the end of the Second World War, it would have been difficult to find a Polikarpov I-16 anywhere. The type had all but vanished into history. One survivor was eventually suspended from the roof of a museum in St. Petersburg, another is on outdoor display at Moscow's Central War Museum, while a third is on exhibition with the PLAAF Museum at Changping, China. A solitary I-16 UTI remains, having recently been restored for the Central Finland Aviation Museum, this aircraft having been captured in 1941. That is likely to have been the final tally for the Polikarpov I-16 had it not been for the intervention of Sir Tim Wallis.....